Introducing a Demand-Linked Highway Toll System

◩ Key Summary

Highway tolls in Korea are determined mainly by distance and vehicle type. While there are some commuting discounts and late-night discounts for freight trucks, the system does not adequately reflect actual road congestion or time-specific demand. Instead, passenger vehicles are subject to a uniform 5% weekend surcharge during daytime hours on Saturdays, Sundays, and public holidays (Korea Expressway Corporation, 2026).

Even on the same route, expressways are congested on Friday evenings and Sunday afternoons, but relatively clear on weekday nights or early weekend mornings. Yet if similar tolls are charged at all times, drivers have little reason to change their departure time. Because unused road capacity cannot be stored, it is more efficient to shift demand by lowering tolls during off-peak periods.

Policy Proposals

① Provide up to a 30% toll discount from 10:00 p.m. to 5:00 a.m. the next day based on the actual distance driven during that time.

② Apply 10–20% discounts on weekends and public holidays during uncongested hours and on non-metropolitan routes.

③ Suspend discounts on congested Seoul metropolitan area segments and during peak periods such as holidays, long weekends, and vacation seasons.

④ Use Hi-Pass travel records to provide post-trip refunds only for the actual distance driven during eligible discount periods.

⑤ Regularly adjust discount rates according to route-specific traffic volume and travel speed.

This differs from policies that simply lower tolls for all vehicles across the board or unconditionally exempt tolls during holidays. It is a market-friendly public pricing system that lowers prices when roads have spare capacity and does not apply discounts when roads are congested.

Core Policy Instruments

Policy Instrument | Proposal | Objective

Nationwide standard nighttime discount | Daily, 22:00–05:00, 30% discount on actual nighttime driving distance | Use idle road capacity

Weekend early morning/night discount | Weekends and public holidays, 05:00–09:00 and 19:00–22:00, 20% discount on uncongested segments | Spread departure times

Regional weekend discount | 10–20% discount on uncongested non-metropolitan segments during weekend daytime | Expand regional tourism and living population

Suspension of discounts during congested periods | Exclude habitual congestion in the Seoul metropolitan area and holiday, long weekend, and vacation periods | Block induced demand

Post-settlement | Refund only actual eligible time-period and distance based on Hi-Pass records | Prevent waiting and speeding

1. Problem Statement: Highway Tolls Should Also Reflect Demand

◩ Uniform pricing fails to reflect the value of road use by time period

The value of expressway use differs by time and place. Road use is concentrated during commuting hours, Friday evenings, and Sunday afternoons. When one additional vehicle enters, the travel speed of all vehicles may fall and travel times may lengthen. By contrast, substantial road capacity goes unused on weekday nights or early weekend mornings. At such times, one more vehicle entering the road imposes little congestion cost on other users.

Nevertheless, if tolls are the same during congested and uncongested periods, users have no economic incentive to avoid peak times. In effect, this means a relatively low price is charged during congested periods and a relatively high price during uncongested periods.

Like electricity or rail seats, spare highway capacity cannot be stored. Unused nighttime road capacity cannot be carried over to the next day. Therefore, lowering prices during quiet periods to shift demand is a way to increase facility utilization and public welfare.

◩ Demand-linked pricing is not simply a toll cut

A demand-linked pricing system is not a policy of making tolls unconditionally cheaper. Rather, it lowers prices when demand is low and supply capacity is sufficient, while reducing or withholding discounts when congestion is expected.

• Drivers who can adjust their departure times move to nighttime or uncongested weekend periods.

• Traffic volume and the duration of congestion during peak times decline.

• Idle capacity on regional expressways can be utilized.

• Regional tourism and expansion of the living population can be supported.

• More efficient use of the same roads can reduce pressure for additional road construction.

The essence of the policy

The government is not controlling travel times; it is giving users the choice that “if you change your departure time, you can travel more cheaply.”

2. Current Domestic Situation and Limits: A Discount System Centered More on Eligible Groups Than on Time and Demand

◩ Differential pricing elements already exist, but they are fragmented by target group and purpose

According to the current system explained by the Korea Expressway Corporation, on weekdays vehicles using segments under 20 km between entry and exit tollgates receive a 20% or 50% commuting discount during commute hours. By contrast, a 5% weekend surcharge applies to Class 1 vehicles from 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m. on Saturdays, Sundays, and public holidays. Commercial freight trucks and construction machinery receive discounts of 30–50% depending on the share of their travel occurring late at night (Korea Expressway Corporation, 2026).

The current Enforcement Decree of the Toll Road Act also defines passenger cars, buses, and freight vehicles with fewer than three axles using segments under 20 km from 5:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m. and from 6:00 p.m. to 10:00 p.m. on weekdays as eligible for commuting discounts. It also allows late-night discounts for commercial freight vehicles and construction machinery from 9:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. the next day (Ministry of Government Legislation, 2025).

In other words, Korea already has time-based differential tolls. However, the current system is designed more around particular policy targets—such as commuting support and lower logistics costs—than around actual demand.

◩ There is no system to encourage nighttime travel by ordinary passenger vehicles

Freight trucks can receive discounts for late-night driving, but there is no nationwide nighttime discount for ordinary passenger vehicles. Even if a long-distance traveler leaves late at night instead of Friday evening, or departs at dawn instead of during a congested Saturday morning period, the toll incentive is limited (Korea Expressway Corporation, 2026).

To make use of spare nighttime expressway capacity, discounts should be based not on vehicle type or trip purpose but on actual time of use and traffic conditions.

◩ Weekend surcharges are uniformly applied regardless of route and time

The current weekend surcharge applies simply because the trip occurs during daytime on Saturdays, Sundays, or public holidays. But not every weekend and not every route is congested (Korea Expressway Corporation, 2026).

Traffic conditions are completely different between inbound Seoul metropolitan routes on Sunday afternoon and regional routes early on Saturday morning. It is also difficult to treat the Yeongdong Expressway during the peak tourist season and a regional expressway in the off-season under the same standard.

Applying a flat surcharge even to uncongested segments may simply raise the burden on weekend users rather than regulate demand. Instead of merely abolishing the current weekend surcharge or converting it into a blanket discount, it should be redesigned to reflect route- and time-specific demand.

◩ Holiday toll exemptions conflict with the principle of demand management

Korea can fully exempt expressway tolls for a certain period around Lunar New Year and Chuseok. While this has symbolic value in reducing the burden on the public, it runs counter to the principle of traffic demand management because it lowers the price to zero during periods of highest road demand (Ministry of Government Legislation, 2025).

A structure that uniformly exempts tolls during the most congested periods while offering no discounts during ordinarily quiet nighttime hours is not policy-consistent. Even if the goal is to reduce the burden on the public, the selected times and segments should not worsen congestion.

3. Domestic and International Cases: Demand-Linked Tolls and Public Pricing Systems by Country

1. Japan: ETC nighttime and weekend discounts and direction-specific time-based pricing

Japan’s NEXCO provides a 30% toll discount for ETC-equipped vehicles using expressways between midnight and 4:00 a.m. every day, regardless of vehicle type. Some urban roads are excluded, but the policy applies broadly across the nationwide expressway network managed by the three NEXCO companies (NEXCO East, 2026a).

On weekends and public holidays, ordinary passenger cars, mini vehicles, and motorcycles receive a 30% discount when using regional expressways. However, segments in major metropolitan areas near Tokyo and Osaka are excluded (NEXCO East, 2026b).

Japan’s weekend discount is not a universal reduction applied to all weekends and all routes. Its key feature is regional differentiation so that tourism demand is encouraged without worsening congestion in major urban areas.

• Weekend discount exclusions during expected congestion periods

Japan does not apply weekend discounts during periods when heavy traffic is expected, including Golden Week, Obon, year-end and New Year holidays, Silver Week, and three-day holiday weekends. In 2026 as well, NEXCO designated these congestion periods as discount exclusion dates (NEXCO East, 2026c).

This shows that weekend discounts should be implemented only when they align with the goals of revitalizing local economies and utilizing idle capacity. If demand is already sufficient during peak seasons, there is no reason to discount.

• Reform of nighttime discounts based on actual nighttime driving distance

Japan is pursuing reforms to address problems in its existing nighttime discount system, such as vehicles waiting just before the discount period begins. Previously, if a vehicle was on the expressway at any point between midnight and 4:00 a.m., the discount applied to the entire trip, which caused vehicles to wait at tollgates and rest areas just before midnight.

The reform plan expands the discount period to 10:00 p.m. through 5:00 a.m. the next day, but limits the discount—up to 30%—to the distance actually driven during that time. The discount amount is refunded afterward through ETC mileage or ETC corporate cards, and a cap is also placed on the distance eligible for discount per hour to prevent excessive speeding. However, as of July 12, 2026, the start date has not yet been finalized (NEXCO East, 2026d).

If Korea introduces nighttime discounts, it should not discount the entire trip simply because a vehicle entered or exited during the discount period. Only the actual distance driven at night should be calculated and refunded in order to prevent waiting and speeding around time boundaries.

• Direction- and time-specific tolls on the Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line

On Japan’s Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line, an ETC time-based toll scheme differentiating by direction of travel and time of day is in operation on Saturdays, Sundays, and public holidays. It is a social experiment reflecting the characteristic concentration of weekend traffic in specific directions and times, and runs from April 2025 through March 2027 (NEXCO East, 2025).

This is a case that reflects even direction-specific demand differences on the same road in pricing. In the long run, Korea could also consider differentiating between inbound and outbound Seoul metropolitan traffic and between return-to-hometown and return-from-hometown directions.

2. Singapore: ERP adjusted according to traffic speeds

Singapore’s Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) is a congestion management system that adjusts charges by road and time period to maintain appropriate travel speeds according to traffic conditions (LTA, 2026a).

Prices do not rise only when congestion worsens. When lower traffic volumes are expected, such as during school holidays, Singapore’s Land Transport Authority lowers ERP rates or adjusts them to S$0 at many points and times. It is a reciprocal structure in which tolls also fall when demand declines (LTA, 2026b).

3. United States: Real-time dynamic pricing on Virginia’s I-66

The I-66 Express Lanes in Virginia use dynamic pricing based on road sensors that measure traffic volume, raising tolls when demand is high and lowering them when demand is low. The purpose is to regulate the number of vehicles entering the toll lanes so as to maintain free-flow traffic (VDOT, 2025).

Drivers can check the price on electronic signs before entry, and the displayed toll at the time of entry is the toll they pay. Even if the toll changes during the trip, the changed price does not apply to drivers who have already entered. If Korea introduces real-time flexible pricing, drivers should likewise be informed of the toll in advance and the price should be fixed once they enter the expressway (VDOT, 2025).

Comparison of Demand-Linked Toll Systems by Country

Country/Region | System | Key Features | Implications for Korea

Japan | Nighttime and weekend discounts | 30% nighttime discount, 30% regional weekend discount, exclusion of major metro areas and congested periods | Selective discounts centered on nighttime and regional routes

Japan (Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line) | Direction-specific time-based tolls | Different charges by direction and time on weekends | Design by return-trip direction

Singapore | ERP | Charges adjusted every 30 minutes according to traffic speed | Principle of lowering prices when demand falls

United States (Virginia) | Dynamic pricing | Real-time traffic-volume-based pricing, pre-entry price notification | Predictability and fixed prices after entry

Source: Compiled by the author based on NEXCO East (2025, 2026a–d), LTA (2026a, 2026b), and VDOT (2025).

4. Domestic Cases: Demand-Linked Public Pricing in Electricity and KTX

◩ Seasonal and time-of-use electricity pricing

Korea Electric Power Corporation distinguishes off-peak, mid-load, and peak-load periods for industrial and general electricity, as well as electricity for EV charging. Typically, the period from 11:00 p.m. to 9:00 a.m. the next day is classified as off-peak, with relatively lower energy charges applied. There is also a system under which electricity used on public holidays is metered as off-peak usage, and peak-load hours on Saturdays are treated as mid-load (Korea Electric Power Corporation, 2026).

This is a system that charges higher prices when electricity demand is concentrated and lower prices when capacity is available, thereby spreading usage across time. Roads, too, are networks with limited supply capacity, so the same principle can be applied.

◩ KTX occupancy-linked discounts

Korea Railroad Corporation’s KTX online special fares provide discounts of 10–30% depending on expected occupancy by train. The system offers larger discounts for trains expected to have many unsold seats, thereby distributing demand (Korea Railroad Corporation, 2026).

KTX gives passengers who can change their departure time and train a discount option. Expressway users should likewise be given the option of reducing tolls by changing departure times.

◩ Current expressway discounts already demonstrate the potential for demand dispersion

The current commuting discount and late-night freight discount already show that time-based discounts can be applied using Hi-Pass traffic data. Even without building new toll collection facilities, the scope of eligible users and discount rates can be expanded using the existing Hi-Pass system and traffic records (Korea Expressway Corporation, 2026).

The issue is not technology but the purpose and design of the system. It should evolve beyond welfare-style discounts for selected groups into an integrated demand-linked toll system reflecting traffic volume and facility utilization.

4. Policy Proposal: Demand-Linked Flexible Nighttime and Weekend Discounts

1. Basic principles

(1) Apply discounts only to times and segments with spare road capacity.

(2) Apply discounts only to the distance actually driven during the eligible discount period.

(3) Drivers must be able to know the applicable toll before entry.

(4) Fiscal burdens and policy costs resulting from discounts must be disclosed transparently.

(5) Safety measures must be put in place so that discounts do not increase speeding or drowsy driving.

2. Specific discount structure

Nighttime discounts should in principle apply to all Hi-Pass vehicles, but where they overlap with the existing late-night freight discount or other exemptions, only the single largest discount should apply.

Weekend discounts should, as in Japan, focus on regional expressways. In principle, Seoul Ring Expressway Section 1, major radial routes entering the Seoul metropolitan area, and habitual bottleneck sections should be excluded. However, where congestion differs significantly by direction and time even on the same route, segment-specific and direction-specific application should be allowed.

Proposed Design for Demand-Linked Flexible Nighttime and Weekend Discounts

Category | Eligible Time/Users | Proposed Discount Rate | Conditions

Nationwide standard nighttime discount | Daily 22:00–05:00 | 30% | Actual distance driven during the discount period

Weekend early morning/night discount | Sat/Sun/public holidays 05:00–09:00, 19:00–22:00 | 20% | Segments with no congestion forecast

Regional weekend discount | Sat/Sun/public holidays 09:00–19:00 | 10–20% | Uncongested regional segments

Special ultra-low-demand discount | Specific late-night or off-season segments | Up to 40% | Pilot project and prior notice

Congested segments | Inbound Seoul metropolitan routes, habitual bottlenecks | No discount | Current toll or weekend surcharge

Special congestion periods | Holidays, vacation season, and long weekends of 3 days or more | No discount | Based on Korea Expressway Corporation congestion forecasts

Nighttime discounts should in principle apply to all Hi-Pass vehicles, but where they overlap with the existing late-night freight discount or other exemptions, only the largest discount should apply.

Weekend discounts should, as in Japan, focus on regional expressways. In principle, Seoul Ring Expressway Section 1, major radial routes entering the Seoul metropolitan area, and habitual bottleneck sections should be excluded. However, where congestion differs greatly by direction and time even on the same route, segment-specific and direction-specific application should be allowed.

3. Discount tiers by congestion level

Every Wednesday, the road operator should publish the applicable segments and discount rates for the following weekend on its website, in navigation apps, and in the Hi-Pass application. Users should be able to check discount availability before departure.

In the long run, the system could reflect real-time traffic volume, but in the initial stage a weekly advance-notice approach is preferable to ensure toll predictability.

Discount Tiers by Congestion Level

Tier | Traffic Conditions | Discount (Example)

Green segment | Average speed is at least 80% of free-flow speed and traffic volume has ample room | 20%

Yellow segment | Some congestion is expected, but demand can still be spread across time | 10%

Red segment | Recurrent congestion or special congestion is expected | 0

Every Wednesday, the road operator should publish the applicable segments and discount rates for the following weekend on its website, in navigation apps, and in the Hi-Pass application. Users should be able to confirm discount eligibility before departure.

In the long run, real-time traffic volume could be reflected, but in the early stage a weekly advance-notice system is desirable for toll predictability.

4. Apply actual driving time, not entry and exit times

If the entire toll is discounted simply because a vehicle was briefly on the expressway during the nighttime discount period, vehicles may cluster around the time boundary. To prevent this, actual driving distance by time period should be calculated using Hi-Pass travel records. For example, if a vehicle enters at 9:00 p.m. and exits at 1:00 a.m. the next day, only the segment driven after 10:00 p.m. should receive the 30% discount. Conversely, if a vehicle enters at 4:00 a.m. and exits at 7:00 a.m., only the portion driven by 5:00 a.m. should be discounted.

At the tollgate, the normal toll should be charged, and the discount amount should be refunded monthly to the Hi-Pass card. Post-settlement also helps reduce waiting near tollgates and speeding intended to qualify for discount periods.

5. Gradually expand to privately operated expressways

Pilot projects should begin on routes managed by the Korea Expressway Corporation and then expand to privately operated expressways after effectiveness has been confirmed. This is because toll discounts on private roads may affect concession agreements and issues involving minimum operating revenue and fiscal support.

The government should not unconditionally compensate for revenue losses from toll discounts on privately operated roads. Additional revenue generated by increased traffic due to the discount should be reflected first, and if local governments request discounts for tourism or industrial policy purposes, those local governments should bear part of the cost.

6. Fiscal Management and Performance Evaluation: Total Discount Ceiling and Pilot Projects

◩ A total ceiling on toll reductions should be introduced

Discounts benefit users, but they can reduce revenue for road operators. Therefore, nighttime and weekend discounts should be operated together with a total ceiling on toll reductions that sets an annual limit.

1. Convert part of the revenue from the current 5% weekend surcharge into funding for flexible discounts.

2. Reflect the additional traffic volume and ancillary facility sales generated by discounts.

3. For discounts aimed at regional tourism, the central government and local governments should explicitly share the cost.

4. Losses should not be automatically compensated through road construction budgets or general fiscal funds unrelated to the discount policy.

If discount costs tied to specific policy objectives are simply shifted onto the road operator, toll cost structures and management performance become distorted. If a discount is intended to promote tourism or balanced regional development, that cost should also be transparently shown in the government budget.

◩ Expand after a one-year pilot project

Rather than full-scale introduction from the outset, it is desirable to operate a one-year pilot project on three types of routes:

• Uncongested routes with regional tourism demand

• Routes where traffic is concentrated in a particular direction on weekends

• Long-distance routes with substantial spare nighttime capacity

Traffic volume, travel speed, toll revenue, accident rates, and regional consumption should be compared before and after the pilot project, and the discount rates and eligible times should then be adjusted.

◩ Core performance indicators

The system should have a two-year sunset period and be extended only if it passes evaluation on the following core performance indicators, thereby increasing the credibility and persuasiveness of its introduction.

Core Performance Indicators

Area | Evaluation Indicator

Demand dispersion | Change in traffic volume during congested periods, share of nighttime and early-morning travel

Traffic flow | Average travel speed, duration of congestion, travel time reliability

User benefits | Toll savings per vehicle, value of time savings

Fiscal impact | Rate of toll revenue decline, additional traffic volume, discount costs

Regional economy | Tourist visits, spending at rest areas and local commercial districts

Safety | Nighttime traffic accident rate, drowsy-driving accidents, speeding enforcement

Environment | Changes in fuel consumption and emissions resulting from reduced congestion time

5. Conclusion: Reforming Public Pricing Through Demand-Linked Systems

(1) Flexible public pricing should be expanded, beginning with a demand-linked reform of expressway tolls

Debates over expressway tolls are often simplified into choices between increases and freezes, or between toll roads and free roads. But what matters is not only the level of tolls, but also when, where, and by what criteria they are charged.

A system that fully exempts tolls during heavily congested holiday periods while charging normal tolls on quiet weekday nights or uncongested weekend periods can hardly be considered rational demand management. The current system, which uniformly imposes surcharges on all weekend users, likewise fails to reflect route-specific differences in demand.

If tolls are lowered during nighttime and uncongested weekend periods, people who can choose their departure times can reduce transportation costs. Users who travel during congested periods can enjoy faster and more reliable travel service as traffic is spread out. Regions gain opportunities for increased tourism and spending, and road operators can use existing infrastructure more efficiently.

Flexible nighttime and weekend discounts on expressways are not simply a toll-cutting policy. They are a demand-linked innovation in public pricing that induces voluntary user choices through price signals. Rather than simply charging more whenever roads are congested, reform should begin with a system that clearly makes travel cheaper when roads are underused.

Direction of policy change

The system should shift from uniform pricing to demand-linked pricing, from universal free-use policies to selective discounts, and from target-group-based exemptions to time- and segment-specific pricing.

2. Expected Issues and Complementary Measures

◩ “Discounts could actually increase vehicle use”

Lower tolls may generate new automobile trips. In particular, if discounts are uniformly applied during already congested periods, congestion may worsen. Therefore, discounts should be limited not to already congested sections but to times and routes with spare capacity. If traffic exceeds a certain threshold, the discount rate should be automatically reduced or the route excluded from the next eligibility period.

◩ “Night driving and drowsy driving could increase”

Nighttime discounts must not encourage excessive late-night driving. Only the distance actually driven during the discount period should be recognized, and there should be an hourly cap on eligible discounted distance to eliminate incentives for speeding. For long-distance vehicles, time spent at rest areas should not be treated unfavorably in discount calculations. The structure should not penalize stopping to rest; it should allow drivers to receive the discount even if they take adequate breaks.

◩ “The pricing system could become too complicated”

If tolls change continuously in real time, user distrust may increase. In the initial stage, time periods and segments should be set in advance and announced at least 3–7 days beforehand. Navigation apps should display expected tolls along with the difference in tolls for “depart now,” “depart in 1 hour,” and “depart at night.” Discount information must be easy to compare for the demand-dispersion effect to emerge.

◩ “It is unfair if only Hi-Pass users receive the benefit”

Accurate calculation of time and distance and post-trip refunds effectively require Hi-Pass use. In return, access to Hi-Pass terminals and card issuance should be improved, and vulnerable groups could receive support for purchasing terminals. In the long run, as license-plate-recognition-based smart tolling expands, it will become possible to apply discounts even without separate terminals.

◩ References

· Ministry of Government Legislation. (2025). Enforcement Decree of the Toll Road Act [Effective Jan. 1, 2025, Presidential Decree No. 35165]. National Law Information Center. https://www.law.go.kr/lsInfoP.do?lsId=004376

· Korea Expressway Corporation. (2026). “Toll Inquiry: Weekday/Weekend Differential Tolls and Late-Night Discounts for Freight Trucks.” https://www.ex.co.kr/portal/usefee/selectUseFeeNList.do

· Korea Electric Power Corporation. (2026). “Korean Electricity Tariff Table: Seasonal and Time-of-Use Classification.” https://home.kepco.co.kr/kepco/front/html/CY/E/E/CYEEHP00102.html

· Korea Railroad Corporation. (2026). “KTX Online Special Fare.” https://www.korail.com/ticket/discountSystem/internet

· NEXCO East. (2025). “ETC Aqua-Line Discounts and ETC Time-Based Tolls: From April 1, 2025.” https://www.driveplaza.com/etc/dis/etc_dis_aqualine_social_experiment-nextterm/

· NEXCO East. (2026a). “ETC Nighttime Discount.” https://www.driveplaza.com/etc/dis/etc_dis_night/

· NEXCO East. (2026b). “ETC Weekend/Public Holiday Discount.” https://www.driveplaza.com/etc/dis/etc_dis_weekend/

· NEXCO East. (2026c). “Notice on 2026 Weekend/Public Holiday Discount Application Dates,” Mar. 17, 2026. https://www.e-nexco.co.jp/news/important_info/2026/0317/00016041.html

· NEXCO East. (2026d). “Regarding the Reform of the Nighttime Discount.” https://www.driveplaza.com/etc/dis/etc_dis_night_fix/

· Singapore Land Transport Authority (LTA). (2026a). “Electronic Road Pricing (ERP).” https://onemotoring.lta.gov.sg/content/onemotoring/home/driving/ERP/ERP.html

· Singapore Land Transport Authority (LTA). (2026b). “Revised ERP Rates from 2 June 2026,” 25 May 2026. https://www.lta.gov.sg/content/ltagov/en/newsroom/2026/5/news-releases/revised-erp-rates-2-jun-26.html

· Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT). (2025). “66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway: About,” updated 25 July 2025. https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/about/

Wiki:

https://www.cfe.org/w/bbsDetail.php?idx=145

Original title: 수요연동형 고속도로 통행료체계 도입 방안

Author: Center for Free Enterprise (CFE)

Date: 2026-07-13

Source: https://www.cfe.org/bbs/bbsDetail.php?cid=issue&pn=1&idx=29269